Belenky Gilligan and Perry Work and Reviewers Concerns

Progression from Perry

Index

• Introduction
• If you were to read 1 paper..
• Perry's Model
• Chemistry Application
• Criticisms of Perry
• Belenky's Model
• Belenky's model compared to Perry's stages of learning
• Criticisms of Belenky
• Other theories
• Appliedsolutions to the Perry Schema
• References

Introduction

For many years it was believed that students were bare slates to which lectures could inscribe knowledge and truth. In the last twoscore years, there had been substantial changes in how we view pupil's ethical, intellectual and emotional development through teaching. William Perry (1970, 1991) was the outset to devise a model which defines the students' trajectory every bit progressing through nine 'positions' which are categorised into four headings: Dualism; Multiplicity; Relativism and Commitment within relativism. His theory was both highly influential and heavily criticised. The most noted critique of his work was in: 'Women's Ways of Knowing' past Belenky et al. (1986). It could non be ignored that Perry had but selected males for participation, and consequently Belenky et al. (1986) interviewed women to gain insight into how their epistemological development and behavior differed from men. She found that women view knowledge through 5 different perspectives: Silence; Received Knowledge; Subjective Knowledge; Procedural Knowledge and Constructed Knowledge. This gave an indication that Perry's model could not be universally generalised. Still, Belenky et al. (1986) did not go without criticism.  Similarly to Perry they used a restricted sample and generated their theory based upon interviews with the women. Other theorists such every bit Baxter Magolda (1992) and King & Kitchener (1994) also contributed theories regarding the epistemological development of college students, that weren't  prepare apart by gender. There is nevertheless a lot of ground to comprehend in terms of providing empirical evidence for how students develop their understanding of knowledge, every bit of however it is difficult to replicate such findings in order to sympathise where differences may emerge. All theories and related criticisms will be explored in more than item in the text below. If you wish to read more on the subject, links and references will be provided throughout the text.

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If y'all were to read one newspaper...

The paper by Hofer and Pintrich (1997) reviews a number of different perspectives that look into students' thinking and beliefs nigh the nature of knowledge and knowing. The paper analyses models by: Perry (1970, 1981), Belenky et al. (1986) Baxter Magolda (1992) and Male monarch & Kitchener (1994). If y'all wish to read more near the topics that volition be explored in this wiki page, and so follow this link .

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Perry's Model

In the 1950s and 1960s Perry conducted a longitudinal written report where he interviewed students from Harvard and Radcliff using an instrument that he called a Checklist of Educational Values. From these interviews he developed a 'scheme' of college students' intellectual and ethical development.

He argued that the students pass through 9 different 'positions' , rather than stages, that are synthetic via the style student views themselves in terms of what they believe knowledge to exist. Although the scheme shared a lot in common with Piaget'due south developmental model, it was made articulate that he wasn't describing a formal developmental progress. The successive change in cognition through the positions is said to be a outcome of the individuals interacting with their environments and thus responding to new experiences by either adapting to existing cerebral frameworks or all-around the framework itself.

The ix positions were clustered into 4 sequential categories: dualism, multiplicity, relativism, and delivery inside relativism. The basic scheme is detailed below:

Dualism : Positions 1-2 are characterised by a right and incorrect, good and bad view of the earth, they expect to be taught the 'truth' and therefore learning is passive procedure.

Multiplicity : In Position 3 is a modification of dualism, students begin to realise that authorities have a number of different perspectives; however the truth is withal attainable. In position 4, dualism is modified again, students are aware of at that place existence a number of opinions; however, no 1 is right or wrong, everyone's view has equal importance.

Relativism : In Position 5, students are now transitioning away from a dualism perspective to a relativist view; write a wrong thinking is nevertheless appropriate, only only in certain contexts. In position 6 students see knowledge as contextual and contingent and begin to see the need to found an identity and make order of the anarchy of diverging opinions.

Commitment within relativism : In the final positions, 7 through 9, the students focus on responsibility and date. They commit to a selection of 'truths' that although aren't 'correct' in an absolute sense, still mean something to them in terms of their values, careers, relationships and personal identity.

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Perry's Model in the context of learning Chemical science

Finster (1989) put Perry's model into the context of a student learning chemistry. The quotes beneath are from chemistry students discussing the lectures in anticipation of an upcoming test:

StudentA:"I enjoyed the lecture because the Professor clearly knows what she is talking virtually. I am puzzled though because she couldn't seem to explain which theory was correct. I accept to notice out which one is right so I tin reply the test questions."

StudentB: "I, likewise,enjoyed the lecture and hearing most the different approaches to bonding. I can't tell when to use which 1 either, merely she seemed more interested in the Valence Bond approach-although each theory seems to piece of work. I think I'll employ that one on the test because that'due south the ane I call up she likes the most."

StudentC: "That was a great lecture! I used to think that scientists ever had a unmarried, right answer for everything, but now I see how differing theories tin exist used different ways. Neither theory is absolutely 'right' all the time, simply each can be used very effectively in a given situation. It depends upon what you lot wish to demonstrate."

The examples demonstrate a constructivist manner of learning, equally the students are making dissimilar meaning of what they've learned, rather than arresting the information in a uniform fashion. Perry's model can be used as a framework to interpret the dissimilar responses. For example, student Aconspicuously demonstrates adualist approach to learning, they see their professor as authorizing what they should know, and is in search for a 'right' reply.Pupil B has moved away from assuming there is a right and wrong reply, to adopting multiplistic  approach; there is now more than one opinion this student is willing to taking on lath, however, they are withal in search of the correct reply through trying to gauge what the instructor will desire. Student C  demonstrates a relativist  approach; they value each theory on the footing of how effective each will be in a given context. They are still even so to commit to adapting the theories to reflect their own personal identity and environmental influences.

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Criticisms of Perry

Perry noted a number of weaknesses with his model; most obviously was that the sample was largely composed of white, elite, male college students educated at Harvard during the 1960s. Another weakness was found in the means the positions shift; whilst the movement from dualism to multiplicity is clearly noted, the upper positions are less-well defined (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). More than specifically, it was criticized that positions seven-nine were more reflective of the socialization procedure and values of Western Liberal Arts Education, rather than a truthful structural, developmental trajectory (Moore 1989). Another primary criticism is that the theory was based upon interviews, non behavioural evidence (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991); this has been a trouble for those who wish to replicate the results through measuring modify.

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Belenky's Model

Women's means of knowing

Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberg and Tarule (1986) created a model which was grounded in the work of Perry (1970), but they as well establish that Perry'southward male sample lacked to accost some issues and experiences that were common and pregnant in the lives and cognitive development of women (Dearest & Guthrie, 1999). The model they created is known as 'Women'due south ways of knowing', the theory behind this model partly comes from Perry'due south scheme of intellectual and ethical development and the work of Gilligan (1982) in moral and personal development in women. Belenky et al. (1986) came upwardly with five epistemological perspectives through which women view themselves, the world and their human relationship to knowledge.

- The first perspective issilence,women in this perspective draw a feeling of not having an own voice and these women feel asunder from knowledge, the sources of knowledge and their relationship to knowledge. Near women in this perspective are immature, have express instruction (though non because they weren't smart enough), have a depression socio-economic status and a lot of them take a history of abuse.

- The second perspective isreceived cognition,learning by listening to others is mainly described by this perspective. Most women characterized by this perspective lack cocky confidence and nearly of the time they define themselves externally.

- The third perspective issubjective knowledge, knowledge in this perspective is seen as personal and intuitive. Women learn from their own experiences and don't printing their noesis upon others. Fifty-fifty though a lot of the women in this perspective show a history of sexual harassment and abuse, they were by and large optimistic and positive towards the future.

- The 4th perspective isprocedural knowledge,women in this perspective focus themselves on learning and how to gain knowledge. Two modes of procedural knowledge are described, split knowing and connected knowing. Separate knowers are mainly critical and detached and they wait for disarming someone and to be convinced. On the other hand, connected knowers are seen as more empathetic and receptive and they want understand and be understood. The women in this group are mainly characterized past beingness economically privileged and virtually of them are young college students or graduates.

- The 5th perspective isconstructed knowledge,this perspective distinguishes itself past the idea that all knowledge is constructed and must be judged in its ain context. The women in this perspective have the ability to heed, share and work together while maintaining their own voice.

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Belenky'south model compared to Perry'southward stages of learning

On i side, Perry'southward developmental model takes autonomy equally a starting-point and on the other side at that place's Belenky's model more often than not shows that connection is an important role in the intellectual development in women. Belenky'south model is founded in Gilligans (1982) enquiry, women are expected to be focused on the perspective of others and that they think virtually the consequences for others when they make their decisions.

Secondly, there'southward the deviation in the specific groups they both used for their research. Perry merely used male Harvard undergraduates and Belenky only used females. But this gender-specificity is not needed anymore. Although women are more likely than men to bear witness certain characteristics, this is only a cultural phenomenon. So we can use both models for both males and females.

It'due south also possible to compare Belenky'southward model with Perry's stages of learning. The first perspective of silence  is absent from Perry'southward scheme, Perry probably didn't  notice this stage in his study, considering it'south only not-existent in his research group which consisted of male Harvard undergraduates. The second perspective of received noesis  can exist compared to Perry'due south dualism , absolute truths comes from infallible government. The perspective of subjective cognition  can exist seen as Perry's multiplicity , the main focus is on intuition. The fourth perspective of procedural knowledge  shows similarities with Perry's relativism subordinate , the emphasis is mainly on context and situation specific evidence. And lastly synthetic knowledge is comparable to Perry'southward relativism , the role of the knower in knowledge is of import (Brockbank & McGill, 2007) .

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Criticisms of Belenky

There are multiple criticisms nigh Belenky'southward women's ways of knowing. The chief critique is that it is merely based on women. One of the claims is that the piece of work is biased, because this model is described without reference to men. These critics claim that no valid study of women except sex differences report can be done. But Belenky says that they're non challenge that its insights are limited to women, they might as well be men'south means of thinking.

Another merits is one about essentialism. Essentialism claims that there are characteristics which all women share. This tin can lead to generalizing, which is unwanted in research. Just on the other hand, some degree of generalizing is needed to carry inquiry and to implement findings (Klein et al., 2007). A final critique that information technology is seen as a developmental phase theory, fifty-fifty though the authors merits that it isn't.This critique is based on the impression the stages give. The journey from silence to vocalism, gives the illusion of progress.

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Other theories

Adjacent to Perry's and Belenky'southward theories, there are multiple other developmental theories from educational psychology. The ones discussed on this page, are the epistemological reflection model from Baxter Magolda (1992) and the reflective sentence model from King and Kitchener (1994). For farther reading on more developmental theories from educational psychology, follow this link

The epistemological reflection model

In response to the gender differences establish in Perry'southward and Belenky's models, Baxter Magolda (1992) developed the epistemological reflection model. And even though Kitchener and Rex's before enquiry included both men and women, gender wasn't a principal cistron in their research (King and Kitchener, 1994). Baxter Magolda thought she had found an important gap in the existing enquiry, she wanted to create a report on cognitive evolution that would address gender and the research grouping would include both men and women (Evans et al., 2010). Magolda's model contains 4 stages of knowing:

• Absolute: cognition is certain or accented.
• Transitional: cognition is partially sure and partially uncertain
• Independent: knowledge is uncertain - anybody has own believes
• Contextual: knowledge is contextual: judge on ground of evidence in context

The cogitating sentence model

The cogitating judgement model of Rex and Kitchener (1994) examines the means that people understand the procedure of knowing and the respective ways they justify their behavior about ill-structured problems (King and Kitchener, 1994: thirteen). Their model adds to Perry's scheme past adding a final phase: reflective thinking. The reflective judgement model has 7 stages, each phase is characterized by a more complex and effective form of justification. The seven developmental stages of the reflective judgement model can be viewed in 3 levels: pre-reflective (Stages 1-three), quasi-cogitating (Stages iv and 5), and reflective (Stages half-dozen and vii) thinking (Whitmire, 2003).

Displayed below is a summary of the models of epistemological evolution in late adolescence and machismo (taken from Hofer and Pintrich, 1997).

Intellectual and Ethical Evolution (Perry)	Women's Style of Knowing (Belenky et al.)	Epistemological Reflection (Baxter Magolda)	Reflective Judgement (King and Kitchener)
Positions	Epistemological perspectives	Ways of knowing	Cogitating Judgement stages
Dualism	silence (received knowledge)	Absolute knowing	Pre-reflective thinking
Multiplicity	Subjective knowledge	Transitional knowing	Quasi-cogitating thinking
Relativism	Procedural knoweledge a) Continued knowing b) Separated knowing	Independent knowing
Commitment within relativism	Constructed knowledge	Contextual knowing	Cogitating thinking

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Applied Solutions to the Perry Scheme

Kloss (1994) has worked with the Perry Scheme in his classroom for over 10 years, in his article: 'A Nudge Is Best; Helping Students through the Perry Scheme of Intellectual Development', he explores three of the questions proposed by Gary Hanson (1982):

1. "What didactics method or style challenges students who think in dualistic ways?

2. What causes some students to adopt a more complex mode of thinking?

3. How much change from 1 style of thinking to another tin be expected in a yr, a semester, or a calendar month?"

His conclusions were:

Firstly, that students need to be faced with moreambivalence;he believed that it was through reading multiple perspectives and varied interpretations that dualistic students progress to multiplicity and relativism.

Secondly, he proposed thatsmall grouping discussions should be encouraged; this  would enable the exchange of ideas and the embracement of multiple perspectives.

Thirdly, he believed that current lecture structure is over-dominated past the teacher dictating what the students should know. Instead,free-guided discussion, where the students are talking for fourscore-90 percentage of the time would nurture confidence and growth through valuing their contribution and knowledge.

Fourthly: Thatstudent ability shouldn't exist under-estimated; they should be encouraged to explore a variety of opinions, ideas and hypothesises, but also to direct their argument with utilize of appropriate prove.

The article revisits Perry's Scheme and makes constructive suggestions every bit to how the passive progression through the ' positions ' can be manipulated so that lecturers can activate and accelerate noesis attainment in students. Furthermore, it encourages teachers to acknowledge the current prove regarding the student's conquering of knowledge, and to question whether more tin can be done to fast-tract their progress.

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References

Baxter Magolda, M. B. (1992).Knowing and reasoning in college: Gender-related patterns in undergraduates' intellectual development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Belenky, K. F., Clinchy, B. Thou., Goldberger, Due north. R. & Tarule, J. M. (1986).Women's Ways of Knowing. New York: Basic Books.

Brockbank, A. & McGill, I. (2007).Facilitating Reflective Learning In Higher Instruction. Maidenhead: McGraw-Loma.

Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guide, F. One thousand., Patton, L. D. & Renn, K. A. (2010).Student development in college: Theory, Inquiry and Do.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Finster, D. Yard. C. (1989). Developmental Instruction Office I. Perry's Model of Intellectual Development,Journal of Chemical Education, 8, 66, 659-661.

Gilligan, C. (1982).In a different voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Hanson, G. (1982). Critical problems in the cess of student evolution. Measuring educatee development, ed. Gary Hanson.New Directions in Student Services, xx, 47-63.

Hofer, B. G. & Pintrich, P. R. (1997). The Development of Epistemological Theories: Beliefs About Knowledge and Knowing and Their Relation to Learning.Review of Educational Research, 67(one), 88-140.

King, P. M. & Kitchener, Grand. S. (1994).Developing reflective judgment: Understanding and promoting intellectual growth and critical thinking in adolescents and adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Klein, S. Southward., Richardson, B., Grayson, D. A., Fox, 50. H., Kramarae, C., Pollard, D. Southward. & Dwyer, C. A. (2007).Handbook for achieving gender equity through education. New Bailiwick of jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Kloss R. J. (1994). A Nudge Is Best Helping Students through the Perry Scheme of Intellectual Development.College Instruction, 42(4), 151-158.

Love, P. G. & Guthrie V. L. (1999). Understanding and applying cerebral development theory. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Perry, W. G. (1970).Forms of intellectual and ethical development in the college years: A scheme. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Perry, West. Thousand. (1981).Cognitive and Ethical Growth: The Making of Meaning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Whitmire, Eastward. (2003). Epistemological beliefs and the information-seeking behaviour of undergraduates.Library & Information Science Enquiry, 25,127-142.

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